: It traces how "black bile" wasn't always a physical liquid. In early Greek epics like Homer’s, "black" was used to describe dark, raging emotions like anger ( cholos ). This paper argues that ancient doctors later "materialized" these dark metaphors into a literal bodily fluid to fit a scientific four-humor system.
: Galen’s Theory of Black Bile . This book/paper explores how the influential physician Galen had to "defend" the existence of black bile against rivals who (rightly) pointed out that it didn't seem to exist in healthy bodies like blood or phlegm do. black bile
: You can find the full article via Taylor & Francis Online . Other Recommended Readings : It traces how "black bile" wasn't always a physical liquid
: Black Bile as the Cause of Human Accomplishments and Behaviors . This examines the Aristotelian "Problem XXX.1," which famously asked why all men who have excelled in philosophy, politics, poetry, and the arts appear to be "melancholic"—suggesting black bile was a prerequisite for greatness. : Galen’s Theory of Black Bile
Published in History of European Ideas (2020), this paper by George Kazantzidis explores the radical shift in ancient thought when doctors first linked a physical substance to a mental state.