The war ended with a series of treaties that fundamentally changed the world:

Switzerland and the Netherlands were officially recognized as independent nations. France and Sweden gained significant territory. 4. Impact and Legacy

Germany's population dropped by an estimated 20% to 40% due to famine, disease, and violence.

In 1618, the Defenestration of Prague occurred when Protestant nobles threw imperial officials out of a castle window, signaling a Bohemian revolt. 2. The Four Phases of War

King of Sweden, a brilliant military tactician, intervened. With French financial backing, he turned the tide for the Protestants but was killed at the Battle of Lützen. The French Phase (1635–1648)

The Catholic League and Emperor Ferdinand II won early victories. They crushed the Bohemian rebels and defeated King Christian IV of Denmark, who had entered the war to support the Protestants. The Swedish Phase (1630–1635)

The conflict is typically divided into four distinct periods: The Bohemian & Danish Phases (1618–1629)

Cardinal Richelieu of France, though Catholic, entered the war on the . His goal was political, not religious: he wanted to weaken the Habsburgs and prevent France from being encircled by enemies. 3. The Peace of Westphalia (1648)